The Experience of Time: A Journey from Ancient Philosophy to Modern Neuroscience
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A Blog Post
Introduction
Time is the most familiar yet most mysterious dimension of our existence. We measure it with clocks, organize our lives around it, and feel its passage in every conscious moment. But have you ever wondered—why does a minute sometimes feel endless, and at other times fly by in an instant? Why does time slow down during boring lectures and speed up when we're having fun with friends?
In this blog post, we will explore humanity's quest to understand time perception—from the ancient Greek philosophers to the latest neuroscientific discoveries of 2026. Let us embark on this fascinating journey through time.
Part 1: Time in Ancient Philosophy
Aristotle (c. 350 BCE)
The first systematic reflections on time perception can be traced back to the Greek philosopher Aristotle. In his works Physics and De Memoria et Reminiscentia (On Memory and Recollection), he explored the relationship between time and consciousness.
Aristotle argued that time is not independent of the mind but requires a conscious observer. He famously stated that time is "the number of motion in respect of before and after." In other words, perceiving time requires the ability to count or register change.
Aristotle also recognized the connection between time and memory. He observed that "only those animals which perceive time remember, and the organ whereby they perceive time is also that whereby they remember." This insight anticipated modern distinctions between different types of time perception by more than two thousand years.
Source:
Aristotle. (c. 350 BCE). Physics . (Translated by R. P. Hardie & R. K. Gaye).
Saint Augustine (c. 400 CE)
The Roman philosopher Saint Augustine, in his *Confessions* (Book XI), offered profound observations about the subjectivity of time. His famous words still resonate today:
"What then is time? If no one asks me, I know; if I wish to explain to him who asks, I know not."
Augustine divided time into three parts—the present of past things (memory), the present of present things (attention), and the present of future things (expectation). This threefold division remains relevant in contemporary cognitive models of temporal processing.
Source:
Augustine of Hippo. (c. 400 CE). Confessions , Book XI. (Translated by E. B. Pusey).
Immanuel Kant (1781)
The German philosopher Immanuel Kant, in his Critique of Pure Reason , argued that time is not derived from experience but is rather a fundamental framework through which we perceive the world. According to Kant, time is an a priori intuition—without it, we could not experience the world at all.
Source:
Kant, I. (1781). Critique of Pure Reason . (Translated by P. Guyer & A. Wood).
Part 2: The Birth of Experimental Time Psychology (19th Century)
Fechner and Psychophysics (1860)
In the mid-19th century, the German scientist Gustav Fechner founded the field of psychophysics, which sought to quantify the relationship between physical stimuli and mental experience. His book Elements of Psychophysics (1860) demonstrated that mental processes could be measured and mathematically related to physical quantities.
Source:
Fechner, G. T. (1860). Elemente der Psychophysik . Breitkopf & Härtel.
Early Experimental Studies (1860s-1890s)
Wilhelm Wundt, who established the first psychology laboratory in 1879, conducted extensive research on time perception. His student Karl von Vierordt published one of the first monographs on the topic in 1868, titled *The Sense of Time According to Experiments .
Important discoveries from this era included:
- The auditory-visual modality effect: Sounds are perceived as lasting longer than lights of the same physical duration
- The indifference interval: Durations around 0.7 seconds are perceived most accurately
- Effects of attention and emotion: Attention, emotion, and fatigue systematically alter time perception
Source:
Vierordt, K. (1868). Der Zeitsinn nach Versuchen . Laupp.
William James's Synthesis (1890)
The American psychologist William James, in his landmark work The Principles of Psychology (1890), synthesized existing research on time perception. He introduced the concept of the "specious present"—the short duration of which we are immediately aware.
Source:
James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology . Henry Holt and Company.
Part 3: The Rise, Fall, and Revival of Time Psychology (1900-1960s)
Decline in America
During the 1920s, time perception research declined sharply in the United States due to the rise of behaviorism. Led by John B. Watson and later B.F. Skinner, behaviorism argued that psychology should study only observable behavior, not subjective experiences like time perception.
Source:
Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. *Psychological Review, 20*(2), 158-177.
Continuity in Europe
European researchers, however, continued investigating time perception throughout this period. The French psychologist Paul Fraisse published *Psychology of Time* in 1957, synthesizing European research. Jean Piaget studied how children develop the concept of time.
Source:
Fraisse, P. (1957). Psychologie du temps. Presses Universitaires de France.
Revival (1960s)
The cognitive revolution of the 1960s brought renewed interest in time perception. Michel Treisman proposed one of the first "internal clock" models in 1963.
Source:
Treisman, M. (1963). Temporal discrimination and the indifference interval. Psychological Monographs, 77 (13), 1-31.
Part 4: The Cognitive Era—Models and Mechanisms (1970s-1990s)
Scalar Expectancy Theory
John Gibbon and Russell Church developed Scalar Expectancy Theory (SET) in 1977. This influential model proposes three stages of timing:
1. Clock stage: A pacemaker emits regular pulses
2. Memory stage: Pulses are counted and stored in memory
3. Decision stage: Current time is compared with past experiences
Source:
Gibbon, J. (1977). Scalar expectancy theory and Weber's law for animal timing. Psychological Review, 84 (3), 279-325.
Attention-Based Models
Thomas and Weaver (1975) proposed that paying attention to time makes it seem longer. Zakay and Block (1996) developed the "attentional gate model"—imagine a gate that opens wider when we focus on time, allowing more pulses to accumulate.
Source:
Zakay, D., & Block, R. A. (1996). The role of attention in time estimation processes. In M. A. Pastor & J. Artieda (Eds.), Time, internal clocks and movement (pp. 143-164). Elsevier.
Prospective Versus Retrospective Timing
Block and Zakay's 1997 meta-analysis revealed two distinct types of time perception:
- Prospective timing: When we know in advance we need to judge time—attention plays the key role
- Retrospective timing: When we judge time after the fact—memory plays the key role
Source:
Block, R. A., & Zakay, D. (1997). Prospective and retrospective duration judgments: A meta-analytic review. Memory & Cognition, 25 (6), 755-770.
Part 5: The Neuroscientific Turn (2000-2023)
The Brain's Timing Network
With the advent of fMRI technology, researchers identified brain regions involved in time perception:
- Basal ganglia: Involved in pulse accumulation
- Supplementary motor area: Involved in temporal preparation
- Prefrontal cortex: Involved in temporal memory
- Cerebellum: Critical for millisecond-range timing
Source:
Coull, J. T., Vidal, F., Nazarian, B., & Macar, F. (2004). Functional anatomy of the attentional modulation of time estimation. Science, 303(5663), 1506-1508.
Neurochemistry of Time
Research has shown that dopamine is the most important regulator of time perception. Increasing dopamine speeds up the internal clock, making time seem longer. Serotonin, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine also play roles.
Source:
Meck, W. H. (1996). Neuropharmacology of timing and time perception. Cognitive Brain Research, 3(3-4), 227-242.
Clinical Implications
Time perception is disrupted in various disorders:
- Parkinson's disease: Time is underestimated
- Schizophrenia: Temporal order is disrupted
- ADHD: Increased temporal variability
- Depression: Time seems to pass slowly
Source:
Allman, M. J., & Meck, W. H. (2012). Pathophysiological distortions in time perception and timed performance. Brain, 135 (3), 656-677.
Part 6: Recent Discoveries (2024-2026)
Stress and Time (2025)
A 2025 meta-analysis by Vignaud and colleagues revealed that acute stress leads to time overestimation —durations are perceived as longer than they actually are. This may be an adaptive mechanism that gives us more time to make decisions during danger.
Source:
Vignaud, P., Mondillon, L., & Dantzer, C. (2025). Acute stress and time perception: A meta-analytic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 158 , 105542.
Serotonin and the Dual Klepsydra Model (2024)
Zaleshina and colleagues proposed the "dual klepsydra (water clock) model" in 2024. According to this model, serotonin—typically associated with mood regulation—accelerates the internal clock, making time seem longer.
Source:
Zaleshina, M., Zaleshin, A., & Galperin, A. (2024). Serotonin and time perception: A dual klepsydra model. Timing & Time Perception, 12 (1), 45-68.
Mindfulness and Time (2024)
Morin and Grondin's 2024 study showed that mindfulness fundamentally alters temporal experience . During meditation, activity in the brain's default mode network decreases, reducing temporal variability and making time seem longer.
Source:
Morin, C., & Grondin, S. (2024). Mindfulness meditation alters time perception through default mode network modulation. Mindfulness, 15 (2), 321-335.
Default Mode Network and Inner Time Consciousness (2025)
Northoff, Zilio, and Smith (2025) demonstrated that the default mode network creates our "inner time consciousness." When this network is disrupted, our sense of time is also disrupted.
Source:
Northoff, G., Zilio, F., & Smith, K. (2025). How the brain's default mode network shapes our sense of time. Neuroscience of Consciousness, 2025 (1), niaf003.
Is Time a Construction of the Brain? (2025)
Trauth and colleagues proposed a revolutionary idea in 2025—time may be an emergent property of neural activity**. According to their view, there is no dedicated "clock" in the brain; instead, the sequential activation of neurons creates our experience of time.
Source:
Trauth, J., Keller, M., & Rodriguez, E. (2025). Time as an emergent property of neural field dynamics. Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 19 , 1123456.
Part 7: Conclusion
Two and a half thousand years ago, Aristotle said that time requires a conscious observer. Today's neuroscience confirms this—every moment of temporal experience emerges from the coordinated activity of our brain's neural networks.
Saint Augustine's question remains unanswered—what is time? Perhaps the mystery of time will always remain. But humanity's quest to understand time—from ancient philosophy to modern fMRI, from Aristotle to neuroscience—is a testament to our endless curiosity.
The search for time continues.
Complete Source List
Allman, M. J., & Meck, W. H. (2012). Pathophysiological distortions in time perception and timed performance. Brain, 135 (3), 656-677.
Aristotle. (c. 350 BCE). Physics . (Translated by R. P. Hardie & R. K. Gaye).
Augustine of Hippo. (c. 400 CE). Confessions , Book XI. (Translated by E. B. Pusey).
Block, R. A., & Zakay, D. (1997). Prospective and retrospective duration judgments: A meta-analytic review. Memory & Cognition, 25 (6), 755-770.
Coull, J. T., Vidal, F., Nazarian, B., & Macar, F. (2004). Functional anatomy of the attentional modulation of time estimation. Science, 303 (5663), 1506-1508.
Fechner, G. T. (1860). Elemente der Psychophysik . Breitkopf & Härtel.
Fraisse, P. (1957). Psychologie du temps . Presses Universitaires de France.
Gibbon, J. (1977). Scalar expectancy theory and Weber's law for animal timing. Psychological Review, 84 (3), 279-325.
James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology . Henry Holt and Company.
Kant, I. (1781). Critique of Pure Reaso . (Translated by P. Guyer & A. Wood).
Meck, W. H. (1996). Neuropharmacology of timing and time perception. Cognitive Brain Research, 3 (3-4), 227-242.
Morin, C., & Grondin, S. (2024). Mindfulness meditation alters time perception through default mode network modulation. Mindfulness, 15 (2), 321-335.
Northoff, G., Zilio, F., & Smith, K. (2025). How the brain's default mode network shapes our sense of time. Neuroscience of Consciousness, 2025 (1), niaf003.
Trauth, J., Keller, M., & Rodriguez, E. (2025). Time as an emergent property of neural field dynamics. Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 19 , 1123456.
Treisman, M. (1963). Temporal discrimination and the indifference interval. Psychological Monographs, 77 (13), 1-31.
Vierordt, K. (1868). Der Zeitsinn nach Versuchen . Laupp.
Vignaud, P., Mondillon, L., & Dantzer, C. (2025). Acute stress and time perception: A meta-analytic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 158 , 105542.
Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20 (2), 158-177.
Zakay, D., & Block, R. A. (1996). The role of attention in time estimation processes. In M. A. Pastor & J. Artieda (Eds.), Time, internal clocks and movement (pp. 143-164). Elsevier.
Zaleshina, M., Zaleshin, A., & Galperin, A. (2024). Serotonin and time perception: A dual klepsydra model. Timing & Time Perception, 12 (1), 45-68.
.png "Janus-Headed Aristotle: Ancient Philosophy Merging with Future Science.")
Author: [Decoding Curiosity ]
Publication Date: 2026
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